Kinbasket Reservoir Revegetation Program
The Kinbasket Reservoir Revegetation Program is a major project that focuses on revegetating key sites within the drawdown zone (between 741m and 754m [full pool]) of the Kinbasket Reservoir managed by BC Hydro. This reservoir covers a vast area of land (216 km in length) and is located primarily in the Rocky Mountain Trench, north of Golden and south of Valmount.
Revegetation of the drawdown zone of hydroelectric reservoirs is an emerging art and science that draws on a number of specialties within the field of ecological restoration, including plant science, soil science, geomorphology and horticulture. Unlike unregulated waters, British Columbia’s (BC’s) reservoirs typically are drawn down during the winter in preparation for the spring freshet, and are then filled by summer, a pattern that Kinbasket Reservoir generally follows. This regime poses unique challenges to plant establishment, growth and survival, because most riparian plant species are adapted to spring flooding and summer low water. In addition to the water table related stresses, significant erosion and deposition can occur throughout the drawdown zone as the water rises and falls. Heavy shoreline erosion, which can be detrimental to plant survival, is particularly noticeable when the water remains at one elevation for an extended period of time.
To develop successful revegetation treatments within the drawdown zone, a variety of different techniques, using a broad range of plant species that are known to survive in reservoir environments, must be tried. Persistence is also critical, because failed prescriptions in one year may be successful the following year, and vice versa. Revegetation can improve shoreline stability and ecological functionality by slowing erosion and deposition. However, revegetation should not be viewed as a cure-all for areas within the reservoir, as some sites may prove too difficult to revegetate without using hard engineering1 to first stabilize the site. This project takes a highly creative and pragmatic approach towards revegetation, but is firmly based on science. Its aim is to develop a variety of revegetation treatments that lead to the establishment of viable, self supporting, predominantly native plant communities that can thrive in the challenging environment of the reservoir.
Activities in this multi-dimensional project have included: the surveying of 26 sites with the collection of vegetation, soil and other data; the collection of wild native seeds, most notably lenticular sedge (Carex lenticularis); the initiation of germination trials; the propagation of plants; and the mapping of suitable revegetation sites.
1In civil engineering of shorelines, hard engineering is generally defined as controlled disruption of natural processes by using man-made structures.
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Arrow Lakes Reservoir Revegetation Program
The Arrow Lakes Reservoir is a massive body of water that extends from near Castlegar to Revelstoke, B.C., a straight-line distance of over 180 km. The shoreline elevation ranges from roughly 440 m at full pool to as low as 420 m, leaving vast expanses of land exposed at low water levels.
Limiting factors to vegetation growth are a direct result of fluctuating water levels associated with hydro-electric generation, as well as slope and substrate limitations. In a typical year in the Arrow Lakes Reservoir, plants are exposed and able to start growing in much of the drawdown zone in late March to early April; by mid-June they are usually flooded. In some years, depending on the water regime, plants can also have fall growth starting in September. This relatively short growth period, coupled with potential fluctuations in the water table of more than 20 m in elevation and associated erosion processes, constrains the ability of plant communities to evolve to a state where they are dominated by perennial native species. Such species are known to be effective in holding substrates while providing wildlife and littoral habitat.
The key environmental and social objectives of the program are to:
1) maximize vegetation growth in the drawdown zone,
2) provide benefits to littoral productivity and wildlife habitat through increased habitat diversity,
3) increase the diversity of native plants, particularly those of interest to First Nations, and
4) provide increased protection for known archaeological sites, where possible.
Soil physical data collected in 2007 in the Kinbasket Reservoir (Keefer et al. 2007) indicates that substrate and texture at most sites can be generally described as sandy, silty or organic. Chemical analysis has determined that all sites are deficient in nitrogen, most sites are deficient in phosphorous, potassium, boron and chlorine, and some sites are deficient in sulphur and manganese. Several of the chemical elements listed above are water soluble, so late spring fertilization application with conventional fertilizers may not be an efficient use of resources. Additionally, it is not known whether or not individual elements are limiting to individual plant species.
Soil quality factors show that most silty sites have high pH levels. Organic sites are generally neutral or slightly acidic. Sandy sites are more variable. Organic matter content was found to be highly variable and may influence vegetation growth and establishment on some sites.
Work began in the spring of 2008, when KES was contracted to conduct a fertilization trial in the Arrow Lakes Reservoir, to plant seedlings and to collect seed from native plant species suitable for revegetation of the targeted sites. The fertilization trial was designed to test the efficacy of using fertilizer to enhance both natural reservoir plant communities and planted sedge seedlings.
Specific trial locations and fertilizer applications were finalized after a preliminary site investigation and once the soil data had been acquired. Sites were grouped by physical and chemical attributes, and a subset was selected on which to conduct fertilizer trials. It was felt that the chosen site should be large enough to allow for all treatments, have some diversity of substrates, have good access and be in need of vegetation enhancement.
In the fall of 2008, KES was awarded a two year contract to extend revegetation efforts to large portions of the reservoir drawdown zone, as identified in the previous year. Activities under this contract include: propagating and planting nursery stock, collecting seed, developing and implementing revegetation prescriptions including; fertilizing existing vegetation, planting seedlings, and fertilizing plantings, installing monitoring systems, data collection and analysis, and reporting.
Silviculture, Wildfire and Forest Stand Effects on Huckleberries
Huckleberries (Vaccinium spp.) are a valuable non-timber forest product (NTFP). Black huckleberries (Vaccinium membranaceum) are believed to be the most important huckleberry species in BC and its distribution amongst the broadest (Hauessler et al. 1990). Serious concerns have been raised, however, as to whether current land management practices will maintain a sustainable berry supply (Gayton 2000, Gagné et al. 2004, Richards and Alexander 2006). Fire suppression, current forestry practices (e.g. mechanical site preparation) and an increasing global demand for huckleberries as a nutraceutical mall all contribute to a reduction in berry producing shrubs (Burton 1998; Tom Hobby pers. com. 2006).
Huckleberries also have a long history of human consumption by First Nations and recreational and commercial harvesters (Gottesfeld 1994, Turner 1997, Boyd 1999, Keefer & McCoy 1999, Hamilton 2000, Richards and Alexander 2006). Recent surveys have shown that many First Nations across BC use this resource as an important source of food and income (Hamilton et al. 2003). This impact is intensified by an active commercial and recreational berry harvest in BC’s interior.
Huckleberries are also vital for wildlife including bears, birds, and small rodents. It is particularly important for interior grizzly bear populations where this fruit dominates the fall diet and is considered a critical fall food (Rode and Robbins 2000, McLellan and Hovey 1995). Grizzly bears, in the Flathead area of southeastern BC, are known to gain over a kilogram per day eating berries prior to hibernating (McLellan pers. comm. 2006). Current land management practices coupled with intense human competition may lead to shortages of this resource, which could ultimately threaten grizzly populations.
Ministry of Forest operational staff and First Nations groups have expressed the need for more specific information on management practices that affect berry productivity. Current knowledge of black huckleberry biology and management in BC is limited and huckleberry response to common forest management practices has remained largely unstudied.
This research will quantify the effects that site conditions, wildfires, and silviculture regimes have on the huckleberry plant abundance and berry productivity in the East Kootenay area of BC. The Flathead and Lamb Creek drainages are ideal areas for this study as they are representative of many areas where black huckleberries grow and there is a heavy reliance on this plant species by humans (First Nations and recreational berry pickers) and grizzly bears. Together, these areas provide a mosaic of landscape conditions and an exceptional opportunity for huckleberry research. The Flathead drainage experienced several high elevation fires in the 1920’s and 1930’s and also underwent significant harvesting as a result of the mountain pine beetle in the 1970’s. The Lamb Creek area experienced a wildfire in 2003, which burned close to 15,000 ha (Keefer pers. comm.). Both areas have a mix of young and old cutblocks. Together, the Flathead and Lamb Creek, also encompass several biogeoclimatic (BEC) zones, including Interior Cedar Hemlock (ICH), Montane Spruce (MS), Englemann Spruce and Sub-alpine Fire (ESSF), and Alpine Tundra (AT).
This study area is also significant because the Ministry of Environment is planning a high elevation prescribed burn in the Flathead drainage for the fall of 2010, in an attempt to improve grizzly bear habitat in the area (see Ecosystem Restoration and Reclamation Projects). This prescribed burn is unique, in that, it will target an all ready existing open older huckleberry patch that has had increasingly diminished berry yields over the last ten years. Because the area designated for burning overlaps with our sampling area, we hope to collaborate with this study by establishing some of our permanent plots in the prescribed burn area. This will provide a rare opportunity to obtain pre- and post-treatment data on this type of management prescription.
Our study is also linked to a long-term grizzly bear research study that is currently on-going in the Flathead area. We hope to eventually explore the link of huckleberry productivity and fecundity rates of grizzly bears.
Ultimately this study will inform forest managers, wildlife managers, First Nations groups and other interested parties about the effects of forestry, natural disturbances, and site conditions on the productivity of black huckleberry. Estimates can be used to integrate with habitat supply models for important species, such as grizzly bears, and help predict the locations and years of best fruit production for human picking.
Spalding’s Campion Inventory and Habitat Assessment
Spalding’s campion (Silene spaldingii S. Wats) is a long lived perennial herb that grows from a single or branched stem, and commonly grows up to 60 cm in height. Perhaps the most outstanding characteristic is that the plant is covered in glandular hairs leading to one of its other common names, Spalding’s catchfly. It is a member of Caryophyllaceae (the Pink Family) that is endemic to parts of British Columbia, Montana, Idaho and Oregon (Douglas et al 1998). Spalding’s campion is listed with the Committee on Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) as endangered and by the BC Conservation Data Centre as a red listed species. In BC Spalding’s campion is only currently known on and adjacent to the Tobacco Plains Indian Reserve in the East Kootenay.
Within the BC population it is believed that invasive plants and the invasion of conifers into grasslands pose the two most significant challenges to Spalding’s campion (Miller and Keefer 2008) and Spalding’s campion is especially threatened by introduced weeds, contributing to the reasons for its endangered designation (COSEWIC 2010). Within the project area, the following Provincially designated Noxious weed species have been found: spotted knapweed (Centauria biebersteinii), sulphur cinquefoil (Potentilla recta), leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula), and hound’s-tongue (Cynoglossum offinale). These species have all been previously recorded growing adjacent to Spalding’s campion (Keefer 2009). St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum), a regionally designated weed species, was also prevalent on Spalding’s sites.
Conifer ingrowth and the encroachment of conifers into grasslands is also believed to pose a serious long term threat to the viability of Spalding’s campion (SIRPRIG 2008) as well as other grassland dependent plant species (Bond et al 2006). On Tobacco Plains Reserve there are many sites known to the Elders that were bunchgrass prairies since time immemorial that are now heavily invaded with ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) (Elizabeth Gravelle pers. comm. 1998).
A further threat to the Spalding’s campion is the general shortage of fodder for wild and domestic ungulates and feral horses. Within the Rocky Mountain Trench it has been found that forage consumption is over 60 percent, well above the 50 percent rule of thumb for consumption (Bond et al 2006). Within Tobacco Plains, range use is compromised by a herd of feral horses believed to be over 100 animals. Through the winter and spring one frequently encounters herds of elk of over 200 individuals. Survey work over the last few years has found sizable areas of ground that have been heavily overgrazed to the point that the former fescue grasslands have been converted to annual brome grasses and Canada bluegrass. Invasive plants establish quite quickly on overgrazed and bare land, and are for the majority unpalatable to grazing animals. These competitive advantages allow invasive species to spread very quickly, reducing the available habitat for native plant communities. Over the last decade, efforts have been made by the Band to open up more habitat through logging and thinning projects. However, it appears that so many sites are moving towards forest that more efforts must be made to keep up, let alone overcome the loss of forest. Also, the benefits of thinning projects are frequently being offset by invasive plant invasion.
Data collected as part of this project helps to determine the health, distribution, reproductive status and threats to Spalding’s campion populations on Tobacco Plains Reserve. The data may also be used to build predictive maps of the plants habitat and in the design and implementation of habitat restoration prescriptions.
MOE Elder Creek Prescribed Burn
KES, through funding from the BC Forest Science Program, is leading a study in conjunction with the Ministry of Environment (MOE) to determine what conditions produce the best huckleberry sites to guide huckleberry management and restoration efforts. This project seeks to reintroduce fire to Elder Creek with the goal of enhancing bear habitat through increased huckleberry production.
This project has the following objectives: 1) enhancing huckleberry productivity; 2) restore conditions suitable for whitebark pine re-invasion; and 3) reduce coverage of competing shrub and tree species.
The black huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) is perhaps the most loved of the wild berries in the Kootenay’s by people and both species of our bears. In order for grizzly bears to reproduce and survive the winter they must gain large amounts of weight, throughout the summer huckleberries are believed to be the key food source in the East Kootenay. Huckleberries are widely known to benefit from fire and other forms of disturbance that reduce forest cover. Prior to the era of Smokey the Bear and fire suppression, wildfires were allowed to burn freely over the landscape resulting in sizeable areas being burnt on a random basis. Once we started aggressively fighting forest fires, a key result was that fires significance on the landbase decreased, while at the same time the impacts of logging increased. This shift in disturbance patterns has led to many of the best huckleberry patches now being found in logged areas and a decline in huckleberry sites outside of logged areas.
The Flathead Valley is well known for having a sizeable population of grizzly bears a species highly dependant on the productivity of huckleberries. Dr. Bruce McClellan is a wildlife biologist with the Ministry of Forests and Range (MOFR) who has been researching the bear population in the Flathead since the 1980’s. His research has documented a significant loss of bear habitat utilisation in Elder Creek a small drainage within the Flathead located between Sage and Kishenena Creeks. He has observed a corresponding drop in huckleberry productivity over this time that most likely explains the change in usage. Through Dr. McClellan’s research it has been recommended that this valley’s huckleberry habitat be restored through the use of fire.
Preliminary surveys of the huckleberry restoration area have also identified that stands of provincially blue-listed whitebark pine are common in the area. This high elevation pine species is also an important food source for grizzly bears and other species of wildlife. Fortunately whitebark pine also benefits from fire, as its seedlings grow poorly in the shade. The prescribed burn plan has been designed to retain whitebark pine trees on the landscape while sufficiently reducing forest cover to permit regeneration of both huckleberries and whitebark pine.
In order to accurately assess the benefits of this work over time, black huckleberry response will be monitored using the methods developed within the huckleberry productivity research (see Ethnobotany and NTFP Research Projects); and the whitebark pine response will be monitored using permanent monitoring stations established prior to implementation of the burn.
The implementation of this plan is agreeable to a number of concerned parties including wildlife managers, foresters, guide-outfitters, and trappers in the subject area. The objectives are all achievable through the implementation of a prescribed burn, particularly if pre-burn fuel treatments are conducted.
Spatial and Quality Attributes of Culturally Important Plants
The Nak’azdli First Nation, located in BC’s northern Interior, northwest of Prince George, continues to rely on traditionally used forest plants for cultural, recreational, subsistence and economic activities. Many members are observing, however, that it is becoming more difficult to find good quality plants for these purposes. Harvesters cite several reasons for this, including increased forest disturbance due to logging, fires, the mountain pine beetle (MPB) infestation, range use, and human development (e.g. mines) in areas traditionally harvested by First Nations people. In addition, the commercial harvest of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has risen dramatically in the territory of the Nak’azdli Nation over the past several decades. This mirrors the situation throughout the province (Forest Practices Board, 2004). Alongside the growing awareness of the health and nutraceutical benefits of wild plants, there is increased interest in cultural revitalisation, and increased global market demand (Duschesne & Wetzel, 2003). Combined, these pressures appear to be affecting the distribution, abundance and quality of understory plant species of importance to the Nak’azdli People.
Conserving and protecting the availability and accessibility of culturally important plant species is a management priority for the Nak’azdli. Protocols for monitoring NTFPS are not yet well established (Ehlers, Berch, & MacKinnon, 2003), making it difficult to ensure that they persist on the landscape in both the abundance and the quality that people and wildlife need. To create a baseline for monitoring, we must incorporate empirical methods with cultural knowledge to understand where, and how abundant, the ecosystems or habitats that support high quality culturally important plants are. Research to adequately incorporate cultural-use species or NTFPs within existing vegetation inventories is still at the beginning stages. Conventional inventories, such as the Vegetation Resource Inventory (VRI), or Terrestrial or Predictive Ecosystem Mapping (TEM or PEM) may record the presence of a species but say nothing of its quality or usability, which is crucial information to an NTFP harvester. For example, a VRI may show that the shrub cover in an area is high, and the corresponding ecosystem map (i.e. TEM) may show that conditions in that area are appropriate to support a certain shrub community, such as blueberries. By combining the two we can predict that blueberries may be present over a large part of this area. Although this is a good starting point, it does little to indicate whether the high cover of blueberry converts to high quality blueberries that people would want to harvest. An inventory must therefore include an assessment of plant quality in order to be useful to NTFP harvesters. To integrate this aspect into a monitoring system we need:
- A clear understanding of which species are the most culturally important to the community;
- Knowledge of the historic distribution of these species and their habitats;
- Information on historic and current levels of use of these plants;
- Established criteria that incorporate the plant quality, as defined by community harvesters, (i.e. characteristics that make the plants desirable for traditional use); these must be understandable to other inventory users (e.g. ecologists) who may be unfamiliar with plant traditional uses; and,
- Vegetation inventory and monitoring methods that account for this quality criteria.
By establishing a traditional-use plant monitoring system in the context of the present-day issues of timber harvest, MPB, and global warming, it will be possible to look at species distribution, abundance and quality, and help to look at how we may monitor, and possibly enhance, the understory plants under modern day pressures.
Rare Plant Propagation and Restoration, Waneta Expansion Project
KES was engaged by Columbia Power Corporation with the goal of translocating rare plants that would be impacted by the Waneta Expansion Project (WAX). The primary species of concern are porcupine grass (Hesperostipa spartea) and Spanish clover (Lotus unifoliolatus ssp. unifoliolatus) with common clarkia (Clarkia rhomboidea) as a third species of interest.
There is a lack of relevant literature on this subject, which reinforces the idea that translocation works for this project must be done with rigorous science, be well documented and set up for publication in a scientific journal to assist others doing similar work.
Porcupine grass is a long lived perennial species that may be lifted and its tillers divided then planted as nursery plugs, it may also be propagated by seed. Spanish clover is likely a seed banking species meaning that its seeds may survive in the ground for a number of years. Being in the legume family Spanish clover is also very likely associated with rhyzobacteria, commensal bacteria that affix themselves to root nodules and fix nitrogen. This information suggests that the correct strategy for this species includes the moving of soils and when sowing the seeds to include some salvaged soil with the goal of inoculating the seed.
The census of the porcupine grass in areas expected to be impacted by the project is 621 individuals. The estimate of Spanish clover is 274 and likely is a significant underestimation of the population as not all sites were visited and these plants were partly decomposed, as it is an annual species. These estimates do not include plants that were out of the project footprint.
Soil sampling found that most of the rare plant sites have been disturbed and that they typically have little to no organic soil development. All soils hand textured as loamy sands. Typically most sites had a non-existent to thin (< 1 mm) cryptogrammic crust over sand. Three samples were tested for metals and nutrients and two for available nutrients analysis. The result for lead was 53, 137 and 284 ug/g. The threshold for lead in agricultural soils in BC is 500 ug/g, meaning that these three sites have concentrations well below the regulated levels. All soils tested were deficient in nitrogen, had sufficient phosphorus and deficient to marginal potassium.
Concerning the soils, it is of great value to save them, however, soils in areas infested with spotted knapweed (Centauria biebersteinii) and Dalmatian toadflax (Linaria dalmatica) should be considered for burial as their seeds are long lived in the soil. The soil testing found that the soils are not likely significantly different from natural sand deposits, this suggests that if post-project soil shortfalls occur that sands could be used.
These works took the project to the point that the lifting of porcupine grass plants and soils with Spanish clover seeds/rhyzobacteria was about to occur. If major earth works are to occur in 2010 it is key that the Spanish clover sites soils are rescued prior to the onset of the growing season. If earth moving does not occur until later in the year a 2010 seed collection is recommended for both species of concern. Moving annual plants in the growing season is a risky proposition and will likely result in death. The porcupine grass may be expected to transplant well, even in the growing season.
Whitebark and Limber Pine Restoration in BC
The erratic distribution of whitebark and limber pine on the landscape can make locating seed trees and restoration sites a challenging process. By integrating an ethnographic approach into ecological restoration methods, efficiencies may be realized in locating candidate sites, implementing restoration prescriptions, and conducting public outreach.
KES is presently implementing two restoration projects utilizing this approach; a whitebark pine restoration project in conjunction with the Lillooet Tribal Council, and a limber pine restoration project in conjunction with the East Kootenay Conservation Program and the Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation of Canada.
With respect to the prior project there exists good local knowledge in the Lillooet area to support this project, and a willingness of local First Nations and naturalists to participate in the program. Volunteers have agreed to not only identify sites, but to collect seed, conduct restorative plantings, and grow seedlings for future use.
However, with respect to the limber pine project in the East Kootenay region, there exists little knowledge of its distribution. By conducting a series of extension programs with local naturalists and landowners in the region, additional locations of limber pine were found. This information created better pictures of local limber pine stand composition to guide restoration efforts, as at present there exists little local data to support planting densities and habitat requirements.
The East Kootenay region of BC is the only area in the province where all three species of five-needled pines occur (whitebark, limber, and western white). Unfortunately limber pine is the least known, and grows at intermediate elevations relative to the others, resulting in some misidentification of locations. Limber pine appears to exist as an island population in the Rocky Mountain Trench of the East Kootenay and likely has little connectivity with other populations to the East, underscoring the importance of regional restoration work. By educating the concerned public at the outset of these projects and directly involving the already enlightened, these projects not only maximize the amount of area restored but also maximize the extension and marketing of these species to the public.
Impact of Accelerated Timber Harvesting on NTFPs
Wild plants are important to residents, harvesters, and members of the Wet’suwet’en First Nation and Burns Lake Band in central-Interior British Columbia. They are valuable for food, medicinal, and cultural uses. As wild-harvesting provides people with an ongoing connection to their land and resources, it is a basis of forest stewardship for many. Many people are concerned with the conservation of cultural-use plants in this region. Some have observed changes to their quality, abundance and distribution, and many want to know more about how they are being affected by environmental and social changes such as the Mountain Pine Beetle (MPB) epidemic, accelerated timber harvesting, increasing interest in commercial non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting, and climate change.
This project seeks to investigate the question: what are the impacts of environmental change and forest management techniques on non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in the Burns Lake area? Better understanding and articulating the distribution of sites which are important for NTFP harvesting (now and in the future) is an important step towards protecting these areas. Research on methods to adequately incorporate NTFPs into conventional vegetation inventories, however, is still at the beginning stages. In theory, an inventory of cultural-use species is really a focused vegetation inventory (Cocksedge 2006) which can be done using existing tools such as a Vegetation Resource Inventory (VRI1), or Terrestrial or Predictive Ecosystem Mapping (TEM2 or PEM3). Existing inventory protocols are limited because they record the presence of a species but say nothing of its quality or usability, which is crucial information to an NTFP harvester.
While incorporating NTFP quality into forest inventories is still a new concept, a recent pilot project investigated the incorporation of the quality of locally important NTFP species into vegetation inventories. It was found that the forest characteristics that influence NTFP occurrence and abundance are not always consistent with those that influence NTFP quality, and similarly that models predicting sites with abundant NTFPs can differ from those predicting sites of high quality NTFPs. This project follows these methods, but includes species and quality criteria that are most relevant to the local communities and ecosystems. This expands the tools required for the compatible management of timber and non-timber species, and increases our immediate understanding of the effects of forest management practices on NTFPs.
We sought to follow the principles of participatory research, wherein communities and researchers come together to explore an issue of shared interest, with active involvement and recognition of all partners in the research process (modified from McKennitt & Fletcher, 2007). Such collaborative initiatives are better positioned to enable Aboriginal communities to control the research questions and issues that are examined on their territory, the methods used to investigate them, and the sharing and ownership of the resulting knowledge. This contrasts with much of the conventional research involving Aboriginal communities, wherein outside practitioners have initiated, carried out, and profited from the knowledge generated (Royal Commission on Aboriginal People, 1996; Weir & Wuttunee, 2004). In these cases the research purposes and practices have usually been alien to the community, and all too often the outcomes have been misguided or harmful (Brant-Castellano, 2004). By developing and implementing this research collaboratively, we anticipated that the project would be more relevant to the communities, that it would be stronger by drawing on the local and traditional knowledge of community members, and that research outcomes would be more likely to benefit all partners involved. By jointly developing protocols for how we do our research and share our results; by drawing on the knowledge, perspectives, and skills of a range of partners; and by continually assessing the project’s progress, we aim to make this research as valuable as possible to project partners while providing an example of collaborative research, and lessons learned, for interested individuals and agencies outside of the project area.
1VRI is an inventory based on photo interpretation and ground sampling designed to determine the distribution and abundance of vegetation resources (MOFR n.d.)
2TEM is a mapping methodology based on air photo interpretation of ecosystem distribution (MOE 2007)
3PEM is a predictive computer based spatial model of ecosystems (MOE 2007)
Aberfeldie Channel and Revegetation Program
The Aberfeldie dam is a run of river gravity dam located on the Bull River 30 km east of Cranbrook BC. A recent redevelopment project completed at the dam undertook a $95 million dollar upgrade and enhancement to the previous structures. The redevelopment resulted in construction of a new powerhouse, surge tower, switch yard, and penstock, along with enhancements to the water intake, dam and access road (BC Hydro completed new Aberfeldie generating station 2009). In addition to these structures, streamside areas were modified to create 3,200 m2of fish and aquatic habitat. A portion of impacted streambank and upland areas located within the redevelopment zone have been the focus of restoration activities by Keefer Ecological Services (KES) in conjunction with Tipi Mountain Native Plants and formerly the Aqam Native Plant Nursery.
The Aberfeldie site is located entirely within the Kootenay Dry Mild Interior Douglas-fir (IDFdm2) variant (Braumandl & Curran 1992). Because the valley narrows and experiences a greater influence from the cooler montane climate of the Bull River valley than the Rocky Mountain Trench, portions of the site near the dam are considerably moister and cooler. The more western facing hillsides of the project site are located within a solar basin which incorporates an open reflective character resulting in high insolation and indicator plants such as bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoreginaria spicata) and bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata). These warmer areas typically have low winter snowpack and as such are important winter range for native ungulates.
Other than the wetted portion of the fish channel site it is the vision that the treatments will bring sites back to grassland, shrubland or forest habitats. In the spirit of the original revegetation plan the revegetation activities will be highlighting native plant species. With the goal of a biologically rich plant community that provides habitat for a host of native fauna plantings will be clumpy in nature with significant voids that will be occupied by the seeded grasses as well as volunteer grasses and forbs.
Effects of Mountain Pine Beetle on NTFRs
Forest ecosystems produce a wide variety of valuable resources beyond conventional timber and wood products. Non-timber values include wild foods such as: berries, mushrooms, fiddleheads, greens, and honey, as well as essential oils, floral greenery, and specialty wood products. In 2009, a research team from the University of Northern British Columbia’s Quesnel River Research Centre, Keefer Ecological Ltd., the Royal Roads University’s Centre for Non-timber Resources, the Likely/Xat’sull community forest (LXCF), and the Xat’sull Nation collaborated with members of the communities of Likely and Xat’sull to examine the use of non-timber forest resources (NTFR) in the context of economic diversification and ecosystem based management.
The objective of this research project was to work with community members to determine which plants within the LXCF have the potential for commercialisation. Once the species were identified, the team developed an inventory to determine the distribution, abundance, and quality of the NTFR in the area as well as which resources have management priority. The research team has collaborated with the LXCF board of directors and manager to decide how compatibility management can be advanced to optimise production of both timber and non-timber resources. Although the research team has developed and tested NTFR inventory methodology specific to the LXCF, the lessons can be applied to other areas of British Columbia.
There were two main components to this project: the first being qualitative research including community interviews and workshops, and the second was the quantitative natural resource management ecosystem-mapping project. Interviews were used to ascertain community members’ ideas about how to diversify the local economy beyond timber and also to assess people’s perceptions of the effects of the mountain pine beetle on the NTFR in their community forest. A preliminary workshop preceded the sampling session to identify the 12 species of interest. The final workshop in Likely and the final meeting with the Xat’sull Chief and Council were used to disseminate research findings and give the community members a chance to talk about the project, voice any concerns, and decide the future directions for their community forest planning.
This research has expanded the tools required for compatible forest management and economic diversification, as well as increased our immediate understanding of forest management effects on NTFR.
Community participation in community forest planning is significant because the LXCF is creating a multi-use forest that is used and valued for resources beyond standing timber (Robinson 2005). The cultural value of the forest includes timber production, but it also encompasses other uses for the forest such as spiritual and aesthetic qualities, a healthy ecosystem for living and recreating on and the diversity of NTFR that the forest has to offer (Anderson and Horter, 2002). Diversification into different areas of revenue besides logging is an important aspect for community forestry operators to explore.
It is believed that in the Likely area MPB caused nearly 100 percent mortality of lodgepole pine over 15 cm dbh. In the LXCF, all accessible beetle-wood was harvested (Robin Hood Pers. Comm. 2010). As communities look with anticipation for other ways to create employment, the NTFR sector can provide economic opportunities. However, as the economic importance of the industry increases, so does the significance of monitoring and regulation (Ehlers and Keefer, 2007).
Revegetation of Disturbed Wetlands in Westpath Expansion Area
Sedges (Carex spp.) are important plants that are mainly found in wet areas, and they characterise many of the East Kootenay’s wetland plant communities. During the construction of the TransCanada Pipelines Westpath Extension vegetation inventory revealed Carex communities that were in the path of this development. A result of this inventory was the recommendation that Carex seedlings be planted in these areas following disturbance. Due to the uncertainty of planting sedges an experimental approach was adapted.
The objective of this project was to test different methods of re-establishing wetland sedges following pipeline construction in order to find which method(s) are most effective and cost efficient at achieving this objective. The results of this study are anticipated to assist TransCanada Pipelines efficiently restore sedge wetlands during future projects.
Sedges are members of the family Cyperaceae and fall into the genus Carex; within BC, this genus is well represented with over 250 species occurring in BC (Douglas et al. 2002). With such a large diversity in species, there are obvious challenges in identification. To achieve near certainty in identification one must have entire plant samples including fruiting structures and employ a dissecting microscope, sophisticated genera specific language and dichotomous keys such as Douglas et al. (2002). Many species of sedge are rhizomatous and tend to form dense sods while other species are caespitose meaning that they grow in tufts (Monsen et al. 2004). Sedges are valuable as food for waterfowl, ungulates and other animals; in addition they provide valuable cover for amphibians and other organisms.
Many species sedge are known to have high levels of seed dormancy (Schütz 2000). There is also a widespread belief that many sedge species have low seed viability leading to challenges in obtaining high levels of germination with sedge.
In related attempts of restoring wetlands, it has been found that despite the creation of good growing conditions for sedge that they are slow to re-establish without planting (Budelsky & Galatowitsch 2004). This overall lack of success in recolonization is in contrast with its “superior competitive characteristics” (ibid.).
The site is located roughly 6 km up the Leach Creek Forest Services road near Michelle, BC. It is within the dry cool montane spruce subzone (MSdk), within this zone, it is most similar to the 06 site series as described in Braumandl & Curran (1992). Within much of the site, the watertable is at the surface throughout the year. Adjacent forested areas are dominated by hybrid spruce (Picea engelmanii X glauca). Less disturbed wetland areas adjacent to the pipeline are characterised by a fringe of willow (Salix spp.) and sedge in the wetter portions. Recently disturbed areas in the pipeline right of way that were not planted are dominated by agronomic species and frequently have low plant cover in wetter areas.
Managing Saskatoon and other Traditionally Important Plants
This project is concerned with the management of plants that are of high importance to the Siska Band and other neighbouring Nlaka’pamux First Nations communities. Wisdom from the Siska Elders suggests that the ecosystems in the Fraser Canyon near Lytton were frequently burnt by aboriginal land managers and that they had an open forest structure. This aboriginal landscape provided abundant wild plant food and plants suitable for basketry. Oral history interviews as part of this project have shown that the knowledge of these practices is still alive, but primarily in the form of awareness of the practices rather than ‘how to’ knowledge. The lack of burning in the last 100 years has led to a situation of increasingly dense stands of conifers with a high risk of severe wildfire events.
In the interests of enhancing these plant communities a number of significant knowledge gaps have been found:
- Little information on how to encourage the cultural plants and how they respond to disturbances
- The information is not synthesised in an accessible manner
These knowledge gaps will hopefully be closed through a logging/spacing experiment above Siska and through the writing of guidelines for plant management for Saskatoon, soopolallie, blackcap raspberry and beaked hazelnut.
This project seeks to re-build the Nlaka’pamux knowledge of burning in a way that is complimented by western science and the confounding new factors such as noxious weeds. From the Siska perspective a key result of this work is to once again have productive stands of wild plants adjacent to the community, as well, the reduction of forest fuels is considered key.
Invasive Plant Inventories at Provincial Parks
Kikomun Creek, Norbury Lake, Premier Lake and Wasa Lake are use front country parks found within the Ministry of Environment (MOE) Kootenay Region. Ecosystems in these parks provide important habitat for a wide array of native plant and animal species, and also contain a number of rare and endangered species. Invasive plants threaten the integrity of some of these ecosystems. In response to this threat, the MOE Kootenay Region implemented an Invasive Plant Inventory at these parks.
Inventories were conducted for all invasive plant species identified in the Forest and Range Practices Act, BC Weed Control Act within the four identified parks.
Results from this invasive plant inventory at Kikomun Creek, Norbury Lake, Premier Lake, and Wasa Lake Provincial Parks can be summarized as follows:
- Parks ranged in size from Premier Lake at more than 830 ha, to Norbury Lake at 100 ha, with the area surveyed totalling 1760 ha
- Eighty polygons were surveyed among the four parks ranging from 40 at Kikomun Creek to 9 at Wasa Lake
- Approximately 320 sites were located during the survey, with nearly 400 invasive plant sites
- Kikomun Creek accounted for more than one-half of the total sites and total invasive plant species sites
- Norbury Lake was the smallest of the parks surveyed, but contained more than 30 total sites and 50 individual invasive plant sites
- Premier Lake is the largest of the parks, but it had the least total invasive plant species sites, and the second lowest number of total sites
- Wasa Lake was the second smallest park, but had the second largest number of total sites and total invasive species sites, with 68 and 72, respectively
- Spotted knapweed, houndstongue, Canada thistle, oxeye daisy, sulphur cinquefoil and hawkweed species are the primary species among the four parks
Profile of NTFRs in the Cascade Forest District
The purpose of this project is to profile non-timber resources of the Cascades Forest District of British Columbia. Non-timber resources (NTFRs), also are well known as non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and include all biological materials other than timber, which are extracted from forests for human use (Belcher 2003). Included with NTFRs are botanical and mycological products and associated serves of the forest such as wild food, medicinals and floral greenery, arts and crafts materials, specialty wood products and small diameter wood (non-conventional), ethno-botanical teaching and ecotourism (Resources 2006). Though also non-timber resources, wild animal products such as antlers and fur, or rangeland plants for forage are not included within the scope of this project.
Non-timber forest resources in all their diversity pose unique challenges to the land manager interested in managing for biologically diverse forests and ranges due to wide diversity in species and our general lack of knowledge about them. Few attempts have been made to map their spatial extent and generally such efforts have been focused on a small number of species of high commercial interest, for example the pine mushroom or American matsutake (Tricholoma magnivelare). Front and centre with the ecological issues is First Nation title and rights. There is a large body of local and traditional ecological knowledge held by local people, however, this type of knowledge seldom reaches forest managers and there have been relatively few examples of this type of knowledge being incorporated into management decisions. Some of the plant species that are now being commercially harvested have also been cherished and managed by First Nations for millennia. However, the knowledge base of the First Nations is in a fragile state due to the impacts of colonisation such as the loss of indigenous languages and ethnobotanical knowledge. In BC NTFRs are increasingly being seen as a new frontier in our relationship with the forests and their management.
The study area for this profile encompasses the Cascades Forest District, an area comprised of the Lillooet and Merritt Timber Supply Areas (TSA) that is over 2.2 million ha. Communities within the District include Lillooet, Merritt, Princeton, Lower Nicola, Tulameen, Lytton, Goldbridge, Seton Portage and Pavilion.
At an overview level, this profile will examine NTFRs for the District. In order to make this profile manageable in scope the project focused on profiling key areas of activity within the District. Undoubtedly the best known NTFR business in the District is Siska Traditions, a business that produces jams, soaps, teas and other products, as well, it is also involved in education, fisheries and land management. The Nicola Tribal Associations (NTA) research arm, Tmixw Research has been involved in documenting aboriginal land use and its interactions with the land for over a decade. Through the leadership of the NTA, key individuals have been contacted and interviewed to form the basis of the interests and concerns that are being presented. At a broader scale is the Nicola Similkameen Innovative Forest Practices Society (NSIFS); through the collaborative work of this society the basis for NTFR management within the Merritt TSA has been set. Along with the above entities, there are number of small businesses that have been identified in this research that are profiled to show the diversity of businesses within the District.
Invasive Species Mitigation Practices after Forest Management Activities
It is widely recognized that forestry related activities, such as road construction, logging, and fuels treatments (including thinning and prescribed burning), have the potential to create new habitat for invasive species. Currently within BC’s Interior, noxious weeds are more prevalent in lower elevations within the Southern areas including the Okanagan, Kootenays, Boundary and Thompson regions (Forest Practices Board 2006). Wild fire risk is high in many areas in the Kootenays and Southern Interior, including the wildland urban interface, hence there are many fuels reduction projects. Similarly the mountain pine beetle epidemic is resulting in large areas of land being harvested. As these projects and activities increase, there is a need for planners to be aware of best practices to mitigate invasive species as part of fuels treatment follow up and monitoring.
Ethnobotanical Inventory, Invermere
At the request of the Integrated Land Management Bureau, Keefer Ecological Services Ltd. submitted a proposal to conduct an ethnobotanical inventory on Crown owned portions of District Lot 4616.
The two neighbouring First Nation communities local to this project - Akisq’nuk First Nation and Shuswap First Nation - are from two distinct cultural groups. Respectively these are the Secwepemc Nation (SFN) and the Ktunaxa Nation (AFN). Research by the author while employed by the Ktunaxa Nation Council suggests that these two First Nations use many of the same plant species in highly similar ways. This knowledge is confirmed within the literature (Turner 1975; Turner 1979; Parish, Coupé et al. 1996; Turner 1997; Moerman 1998; Turner 1998; Keefer and McCoy 1999; Deur and Turner 2005; Shuswap Indian Band 2009).
Ethnobotany is most simply defined as the study of the relations between humans and plants. It is a discipline that borrows from a number of other sciences including botany, ecology and anthropology. Since the time of European contact in this region there has been a significant erosion of this type of knowledge amongst the First Nations through the vast changes that they have seen in the last 200 years (Deur and Turner 2005). In an effort to keep this valuable knowledge living, there have been numerous efforts to record this knowledge with much of the best work in BC being led by Dr. Nancy Turner from the 1970’s to present. This incredible body of plant knowledge is used for teaching, self study, cultural preservation and a host of other uses. For the purposes of this project it is the plants of ethnobotanical significance to the Ktunaxa and Secwepemc First Nations that are being inventoried for on DL 4616. Further, this ethnobotanical knowledge is being applied to scope possibilities for a future subdivision.
Given that both the Ktunaxa and Secwepemc ethnobotanical knowledge has been documented in past works, this study was designed to look for the presence or absence and relative abundance of culturally important plant species. Regarding this data, the objective of the work was to look for culturally important plant species, assess their abundance and whether or not the proposed development may impact them. A secondary goal of the study was to examine the possibility of assessing the property for areas of greater and lesser suitability for subdivision. The final goal was to look at opportunities for interpretation of the ecosystem and its ethnobotanical values.
The Crown owned portions of District lot 4616 comprise of three pieces of land: the first is a small piece on the waterfront of Windermere lake Area One (0.73 ha); the second is a large piece on a glacial lake terrace called Area Two (55.62 ha), and; the third is a mid sized piece on a steep hillside called Area Three (7.87 ha).
The District lot 4616 property lies entirely within the Interior Douglas Fir very dry cool biogeoclimatic (BEC) unit (IDFxk) (Government of BC 2006). This BEC zone is characterised by hot, dry summers and cool dry winters with low snowfall. This unit is very small, only being mapped from Canal Flats to Edgewater indicating that it is an ecosystem with unique attributes. Much of this BEC unit has been impacted from urban development and agriculture. Like other neighbouring BEC units in the Rocky Mountain Trench, this ecosystem was subject to frequent stand-maintaining fire events that created a savannah-like landscape (Bond, Krebs et al. 2006). Such a fire regime would have encouraged many key plant species to First Nations plant gatherers as well as an abundance of bunchgrasses and shrub browse to feed native ungulates. Plant species that would likely have been encouraged by this regime include: balsamroot (Balsamhoriza sagitatata), sagebrush mariposa lily (Calochortus macrocarpus), desert parslies (Lomatium spp.), Saskatoon (Amelanchier alnifolia), soopolallie (Shepherdia canadensis) and a wide number of other plant species (Mah 2000).
Over the last 100 years there has been major landscape change in this area due to changes in aboriginal land use, logging, grazing, the construction of transportation infrastructure, fire suppression, the introduction of invasive plant species and more recently, with habitat fragmentation due to urban development pressure. Some of these forces of change may be rectified using ecosystem restoration techniques while others such as urban development and invasive plants are more permanent.
Reconnaissance Level Wetland Testing on TaTa/Skookumchuck Range
In southeastern British Columbia the conservation of wetlands has traditionally focused on large wetlands or large floodplain wetland complexes. Although the habitat values of large wetlands and wetland complexes are easily recognized, small, lentic wetlands may be equally important in maintaining regional biodiversity.
The Columbia Basin Fish and Wildlife Compensation Program initiated a two-phase project to develop a wetland assessment tool and conduct preliminary assessments on 25 wetlands in the TaTa/Skookumchuck Range Unit. The system defines 12 wetland types, and five indicators are used to evaluate wetland systems. A score-card ranks the status of the site against a reference condition plant community. Descriptive features include; site description, wildlife habitat features, and potential management actions. Competent technicians should be capable of assessing the condition of the vegetation and related attributes in small wetlands within a time frame of 30-100 minutes.
A total of 31 wetlands in the TaTa/Skookumchuck Range Unit were assessed. Nine of the surveyed sites were rated as in reference condition, 12 were slightly altered and five were moderately altered. Water was not found in 16 of the wetlands where it was expected; leading to the conclusion that hydrology is a major limiting factor in these wetlands. The majority (21) of the wetlands were impacted by industrial activity. Disturbance from off-road vehicle impacts was found at eight wetlands, and from other recreation pursuits at 10 wetlands. Disturbance from herbivores watering, grazing and browsing was noted in 28 wetlands Wildlife habitat features found included snags and coarse woody debris (25 sites), loafing sites (13), and caves/rocks for nesting (11).
Recommendations include;
1. a detailed hydrological study in at least one watershed in the study area,
2. two of the wetlands found in moderate condition be selected in order to devise appropriate management actions,
3. further refinement of the tool by surveying additional wetlands in the Rocky Mountain Trench, small lentic wetlands associated with wetter forest types (eg. Spillimacheen), larger lentic systems, lotic wetlands on large river systems, and lotic wetlands associated with secondary streams.
Revegetation Monitoring - Kootenay 230 kV System Transmission Line
This final report describes the results of monitoring conducted in summer 2007 during the third and final year of a post-construction revegetation monitoring program for FortisBC Inc.’s Kootenay 230 kV Transmission System Development project. Data from the three years of monitoring were compared with performance standards established in the Monitoring Plan in order to evaluate the success of the revegetation program in achieving the following objectives:
- control of erosion in areas subject to soil disturbance;
- prevention of weed establishment and spread;
- improvement of visual aesthetics; control of tall-growing vegetation that may threaten the integrity of the transmission system; and
- rapid re-establishment of plant cover to minimize impacts in ungulate winter range, riparian areas and other sensitive areas.
One of the most successful aspects of the revegetation program involved the seeding of areas of exposed mineral soil with native grasses. Based on the results of the monitoring, it appears that the majority of the native shrub plugs installed during the project have become established and will continue to grow and contribute to the biodiversity and ecological functionality of the plant community. Noxious weed cover has progressively increased in the post-construction period on and adjacent to portions of the 230 kV transmission line right-of-way. We recommend that an inventory of noxious weeds and tall-growing species along the right-of-way be completed and, on that basis, develop a project-specific long-term adaptive management program. This program should be designed to address biodiversity values and ecological functionality, as well as right-of-way vegetation maintenance issues.
Cultural Plants of the Creston Wetlands
Little was recorded of the Creston wetlands vegetation prior to the diking of the Kootenay River and the drainage of many of the valley’s wetlands. Ethobotanical information for this project originates from oral history interviews of Lower Kootenay Band (LKB) members from 1997-2004 and also informal field surveys by Michael Keefer during the period of the interviews. The master list from the accession was reduced to only include plants known or believed to have been used by the LKB and that should be expected to have occurred within the wetlands.
When one considers the impacts of flood control within the valley they should also consider the impacts of the Libby Dam in Montana, together they form a potent change to the wetlands. Prior to the implementation of flood control measures, the Kootenay River occupied much of its floodplain and dumped a rich load of alluvium on an annual basis that helped sustain the wetland system. The combination of the damming of upstream tributaries and the diking of the wetlands curtailed the annual flooding of the valley and has led to major changes in the ecosystem. Plants such as reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), quackgrass (Agropyron repens) and cattail (Typa latifolia) are well adapted to the new regime and have become dominant species of the floodplain.
The loss of the annual water table fluctuations likely strongly favoured the cattail and reed canarygrass over the tule (Shoenoplectus spp.). Both the cattail and tule were formerly important cultural plant species.
Testimony from Lower Kootenay Band elder’s supports that the wetlands were once the ‘breadbasket’ of the valley providing abundant plant, fish and wildlife resources. A keystone food plant that is now largely extirpated is the wapato (Sagitaria latifolia & S. cunneata or ?awisi in Ktunaxa). The ?awisi was, until the draining of the wetlands, perhaps the key carbohydrate food resource to the LKB. It is now found only occasionally through the valley and not in suitable quantities to use as a food resource. The remnant wetlands are now currently wetted through much of the year making the traditional method of harvesting in mucky shallows with bare feet impractical.
Another key plant that is now difficult to locate in the wetlands is the water parsnip (Sium suave), this species was well known as an important plant food and medicine, was widespread and is now difficult to find.
Along with the true wetland species above it is believed that the wetlands also contained significant stands of riparian cottonwood forest that contained a diversity of understory species. The American highbush cranberry (Viburnum opulus) may be found occasionally in these remnant stands, according to the Elder’s this species was once far more abundant in the valley. Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), Indian hemp (Apocynum cannibinum) once were commonly available but now have highly restricted ranges in the valley (Chris Luke pers. com 2009).
Morels in the East Kootenay, BC
This case study builds on research performed in the East Kootenay region of British Columbia that focused on the habitat and productivity of morel mushroom, which is one of the most valued edible fungi in the Pacific Northwest. In particular, this case study collects what is known and what is yet to be understood about the relationship between forest fires and the production of morels and explores some of the challenges that would be faced in efforts to improve the commercial success of the morel harvest. These challenges include the inconsistent harvest locations and quantities of morel production. In many areas of B.C., annual morel harvests normally depend on the occurrence of unpredictable forest disturbances, principally fire and insect attack. On the basis of prior research and current information, the authors examine the benefits of considering morel production in forest management strategies. They also point to key areas of additional research that could be useful in supporting a healthy commercial harvest of morels.
Morel mushrooms are among the most valued of the edible fungi, and are traded internationally in both their fresh and dried forms. Along with pine mushrooms and chanterelles, morels are one of the principal wild mushrooms harvested in British Columbia (B.C.); and they are an important component of the non-timber forest product (NTFP) sector (de Geus 1993, 1995).
This case study describes features of the substantial morel crop produced during 2004 in the Kootenay region of B.C. The objectives of this study are to document the emergence and characteristics of the morel wild-harvesting industry in the Kootenay region in response to wildfires occurring in 2003, to identify key factors leading to the successful commercial development of this industry, and to explore opportunities and barriers to incorporate forest management strategies that promote commercial morel harvesting.
